A comprehensive review of the environmental impacts of hydropower projects in Sarawak, Malaysia
Corresponding Author(s) : Hadi Nabipour Afrouzi
Future Energy,
Vol. 1 No. 3 (2022): November 2022 Issue
Abstract
Sarawak is a state in Malaysia that has many potential sites for hydropower dams as Sarawak houses many hilly areas which are yet to be developed. As a result, many hydropower dams were proposed in Sarawak. This paper reviews the environmental and social impacts of hydropower projects in Sarawak. The murky river waters of Sarawak contributed to a high level of sedimentation in the hydroelectric plant reservoirs which increases the emission of greenhouse gases through mineralization and indirectly affects the lifespan of a hydroelectric plant. The ecosystem is adversely affected by the loss of trees, destruction of habitat for flora and fauna, and the narrowing of rivers due to sedimentation. The construction of hydropower plants forces nearby indigenous communities to relocate, which are given compensation by the Sarawak government. The issues behind the relocation process are explored in this paper with further details. The communities that are affected by the construction of the hydropower dams will have to be displaced from their original lands; thus, the approach by the government to compensate the affected locals in Sarawak is explored in this paper.
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- K. Manohar and A. A. Adeyanju “Hydro power energy resources in Nigeria”, Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 68-73, 2009.
- P. Balakrishnan, M. S. Shabbir, A. F. Siddiqi & X. Wang, “Current status and future prospects of renewable energy: A case study”, Energy Sources, vol. 42, issue 21, pp. 2698-2703, 2020.
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- R. Stone, “Three Gorges Dam: Into the Unknown”, Science, vol. 321, issue 5889, pp. 628-632, 2008.
- M. Faizal, L. J. Fong, J. Chiam, and A. Amirah, “Energy, Economic and Environmental Impact of Hydropower in Malaysia”, International Journal of Advanced Scientific Research and Management, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 33-42, 2017.
- M. Hossain, A. S. N. Huda, S. Mekhilef, M. Seyedmahmoudian, B. Horan, A. Stojcevski and M. Ahmed, “A state-of-the-art review of hydropower in Malaysia as renewable energy: Current status and future prospects”, Energy Strategy Reviews, vol. 22, pp. 426-437, 2018.
- S. M. Cheyne, W. J. Sastramidjaja, Muhalir, Y. Rayadin, and D. W. Macdonald, “Mammalian communities as indicators of disturbance across Indonesian Borneo.”, Global Ecology and Conservation, vol. 7, pp. 157–173, 2016.
- N. H. Binti Tambi, H. N. Afrouzi, K. Mehranzami, J. Ahmed, “A review of available hybrid renewable energy systems in Malaysia”, International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive System (IJPEDS), Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 433-441, 2020.
- R. Shirley and D Kammen, “Energy planning and development in Malaysian Borneo: Assessing the benefits of distributed technologies versus large scale energy mega-projects.”, Energy Strategy Reviews, vol. 8, pp. 15-29, 2015.
- M. W. Beck, A. H. Claassen, and P. J. Hundt, “Environmental and livelihood impacts of dams: common lessons across development gradients that challenge sustainability”, International Journal of River Basin Management, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 73–92, 2012.
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- H. Guo, Q. Hu, Q. Zhang, and S. Feng, “Effects of the Three Gorges Dam on Yangtze River flow and river interaction with Poyang Lake, China: 2003–2008”, Journal of Hydrology, vol. 416- 417, pp. 19–27, 2012.
- Q. G. Wang, Y. H. Du, Y. Su, and K. Q. Chen, “Environmental impact post-assessment of dam and reservoir projects: a review”, Procedia Environmental Sciences, vol. 13, pp. 1439–1443, 2012.
- M. Wiatkowski, “Influence of Slup dam reservoir on flow and quality of water in the Nysa Szalona River”, Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 469–478, 2011.
- Q. Lin, “Influence of dams on river ecosystem and its countermeasures”, Journal of Water Resource and Protection, vol. 03, no. 01, pp. 60–66, 2011.
- Y. Yi, Z. Yang, and S. Zhang, “Ecological influence of dam construction and river-lake connectivity on migration fish habitat in the Yangtze River basin, China”, Procedia Environmental Sciences, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 1942–1954, 2010.
- W.Wildi, “Environmental hazards of dams and reservoirs”, Near Curriculum in Natural Environmental Science, vol. 88, pp. 187– 197, 2010.
- X. Li, S. Dong, Q. Zhao, and S. Liu, “Impacts of Manwan Dam construction on aquatic habitat and community in Middle Reach of Lancang River”, Procedia Environmental Sciences, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 706–712, 2010.
- G. L. Wei, Z. F. Yang, B. S. Cui et al., “Impact of dam construction on water quality and water self-purification capacity of the Lancang River, China”, Water Resources Management, vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 1763–1780, 2009.
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- Sarawak Energy, “Annual Report 2018”, Sarawak Energy Berhad, 2018.
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- RECODA, “Annual Report 2018”, Regional Corridor Development Authority, 2018.
- B. K. Sovacool and L. C. Bulan, “Energy security and hydropower developments in Malaysia: The drivers and challenges facing the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE)”, Renewable Energy, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 113 – 129, 2012.
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- T. Sumi, and T. Hirose, “Accumulation of sediment in reservoirs”, in Water Storage, Transport, and Distribution, Y. Takahasi, pp. 224 – 252, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems Publications, 2009.
- S. W. Trimble, B. Wilson, R. Herschy, B. Dargahi, H. Chanson, R. W. Herschy, and V. P. Saltankin, “Reservoir sedimentation” in Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, Springer, Netherlands, pp. 628 – 649, 2012.
- O. Chioma, S. Thomas, S.U. Hussein, G. Aboi, O. Oshiga, and A. A. Ahmed, “Hydro Power Generation in Nigeria: Impacts and Mitigation”, In Proc. 15th International Conference on Electronics, Computer and Computation 2019, pp. 1-5, 2019.
- D. T. K. Ho, “Hydroelectric dams and power demand in Malaysia: A planning perspective”, Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 252, no.119795, 2019.
- G.L. Morris and J. H. Fan, Reservoir Sedimentation Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1998.
- S. Pacca, “Impacts from decommissioning of hydroelectric dams: a life cycle perspective”, Climatic Change, vol 84, pp. 281-294, 2007.
- T. Y. Ling, C. L. Soo, J. R. Sivalingam, L. Nyanti, S. F. Sim, and J. Grinang, “Assessment of the water and sediment quality of tropical forest streams in upper reaches of the Baleh River, Sarawak, Malaysia, subjected to logging activities”, Journal of Chemistry, vol. 2016, pp. 1 – 13, 2016.
- G. Wang, B. Wu, and Z. Wang, “Sedimentation problems and management strategies of Sanmenxia Reservoir, Yellow River, China”, Water Resources Research, vol. 41, no.9, 2005.
- M. Wieland, “Life-span of storage dams”, International Water Power Magazine, vol. 62, pp. 32 – 35, 2010.
- M. Alamgir, M. J. Campbell, S. Sloan, J. Engert, and W. F. Laurance, “Emerging challenges for sustainable development and forest conservation in Sarawak, Borneo”, PloS ONE, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 1-20, 2020.
- D. L. A. Gaveau, D. Sheil, Husnayaen, M. A. Salim, S. Arjasakusuma, M. Ancrenaz, P. Pacheco & E. Meijaard, “Rapid conversions and avoided deforestation: examining four decades of industrial plantation expansion in Borneo”, Scientific Reports, vol 6, no. 1, pp. 1-13, 2016.
- Chemsain Konsultant, “Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) Study for The Proposed Baleh – Mapai 500kV Transmission Line Project”, Sarawak Energy, 2020.
- H. Kim, “3D Classification of Power Line Scene Using Airborne LIDAR Data”, PhD thesis, York University, Toronto, Ontario, 2015.
- M. Mussa, H. Teka, and A. Hussein, “Environmental Impacts of Hydropower and Alternative Mitigation Measures”, Department of Geography and Environmental Science, pp. 184-186, 2018.
- R. G. Shirley and J. Word, “Rights, rivers and renewables: Lessons from hydropower conflict in Borneo on the role of cultural politics in energy planning for Small Island Developing States”, Utilities Policy, vol. 55, pp. 189-199, 2018.
- W.C. Lee, K. K. Viswanathan, and J. Ali, “Land Compensation Gap for the Resettlement of the Indigenous Communities in Bakun Hydroelectric Dam”, International Journal of Business and Society, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 192-306, 2016.
- B. K. Sovacool and L. C. Bulan “They’ll be dammed: the sustainability implications of the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) in Malaysia”, Sustainability Science, vol.8, no.1, pp. 121 – 131, 2012.
- T. S. Lian, “An Evaluation of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Mechanism as a tool to protect Native Customary Land Rights in Sarawak”, University of Malaya, pp. 1-30, 2015.
- H. Nautiyal and S. K. Singal, Varun, A. Sharma, “Small hydropower for sustainable energy development in India”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 2021-2027, 2011.
- K. Kuok, S. Wee, and P. C. Chiu, “Micro hydro potential in Sarawak: the case of Bakelalan”, International Journal on Hydropower and Dams, January 2012, vol 19, no. 2, pp. 80-84, 2012.
- S. Murni, J. Whale, T. Urmee, J. K. Davis, D. Harries, “Learning from experience: A survey of existing micro-hydropower projects in Ba’Kelalan, Malaysia”, Renewable Energy, vol. 60, pp. 88-97, 2013.
- C. Hauer, B. Wagner, J. Aigner, P. Holzapfel, P. Flodl, M. Liedermann and H. Habersack, “State of the art, shortcomings and future challenges for a sustainable sediment management in hydropower: A review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 98, pp. 40-55, 2018.
- A. Alp, A. Akyuz and S. Kucukali, “Ecological impact scorecard of small hydropower plants in operation: An integrated approach”, Renewable Energy, vol. 162, pp. 1605-1617, 2020.
- D. Robb, “Hydro’s fish friendly turbines”, Renewable Energy Focus, vol. 2, no. 2, pp.16-17, 2011.
- P. March and P. Jacobson, “Industry Experience with Power Generation Options for Environmental Power Flows”, In Proc. HydroVision International 2016, July 2012, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, pp. 1-25.
- L. Nathan, U. Grunwald, E. Rosenlieb, H. Mirletz, A. Aznar, R. Spencer, S. Cox, “Hybrid floating solar photovoltaics-hydropower system: Benefits and global assessment of technical potential”, ScienceDirect, vol. 162, pp. 1415-1427, 2020.
- J. Nrdensvard, F. Urban, G. Meng, “Social Innovation and Chinese Overseas Hydropower Dams: The Nexus of National Social Policy and Corporate Social Responsibility”, Wiley Online Library, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 245-256.
- Sarawak Government, “Laws of Sarawak Chapter 50: Electricity Ordinance Section 16,” 31 May 2007. https://lawnet.sarawak.gov.my/lawnet/Law/TLnetPublishedOrdList.jsp?LTyp=Yr.
- M. Fadzilah, N. Johan, G. b. Sat, F. Urban, and G. Siciliano, “The Limits of Social Protection: The Case of Hydropower Dams and Indigenous Peoples’ Land”, Wiley Online Library, vol 4, no. 3, pp 437-450, 2017.
- M. Tay, “Development and Environmental Injustice in Malaysia: A Story of Indigenous Resistance in Sarawak”, EnviroLab Asia, vol. 1, no. 1, 2017.
- J. Rousseau, “The Bakun Project: Review of Socio-Economic Studies and Preliminary Recommendations for the Resettlement of the Kayan and Lahanan of the Upper Balui”, Report Submitted to the State Planning Unit, Jabatan Ketua Menteri, Sarawak, 1994.
- Suhakam, “Report on the Murum Hydroelectric Project and Its Impact Towards the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of the Affected Indigenous Peoples in Sarawak”, Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi, Kuala Lumpur, 2009.
- L. Abdallah and T. El-Shennawy, “Reducing carbon dioxide emissions from electricity sector using smart electric grid applications”, Journal of Engineering, vol. 3, pp. 1–8, 2013.
- C. Y. Keong, “Energy demand, economic growth, and energy efficiency – the Bakun dam-induced sustainable energy policy revisited”, Energy Policy, vol. 33, no.5, pp. 679–689, 2005.
References
K. Manohar and A. A. Adeyanju “Hydro power energy resources in Nigeria”, Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 68-73, 2009.
P. Balakrishnan, M. S. Shabbir, A. F. Siddiqi & X. Wang, “Current status and future prospects of renewable energy: A case study”, Energy Sources, vol. 42, issue 21, pp. 2698-2703, 2020.
H. Cai, S. Piccolroaz, J. Huang, Z. Liu, F. Liu, and M. Toffolon, “Quantifying the impact of the Three Gorges Dam on the thermal dynamics of the Yangtze River”, Environmental Research Letters, vol.13, no.5, 2018.
R. Stone, “Three Gorges Dam: Into the Unknown”, Science, vol. 321, issue 5889, pp. 628-632, 2008.
M. Faizal, L. J. Fong, J. Chiam, and A. Amirah, “Energy, Economic and Environmental Impact of Hydropower in Malaysia”, International Journal of Advanced Scientific Research and Management, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 33-42, 2017.
M. Hossain, A. S. N. Huda, S. Mekhilef, M. Seyedmahmoudian, B. Horan, A. Stojcevski and M. Ahmed, “A state-of-the-art review of hydropower in Malaysia as renewable energy: Current status and future prospects”, Energy Strategy Reviews, vol. 22, pp. 426-437, 2018.
S. M. Cheyne, W. J. Sastramidjaja, Muhalir, Y. Rayadin, and D. W. Macdonald, “Mammalian communities as indicators of disturbance across Indonesian Borneo.”, Global Ecology and Conservation, vol. 7, pp. 157–173, 2016.
N. H. Binti Tambi, H. N. Afrouzi, K. Mehranzami, J. Ahmed, “A review of available hybrid renewable energy systems in Malaysia”, International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive System (IJPEDS), Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 433-441, 2020.
R. Shirley and D Kammen, “Energy planning and development in Malaysian Borneo: Assessing the benefits of distributed technologies versus large scale energy mega-projects.”, Energy Strategy Reviews, vol. 8, pp. 15-29, 2015.
M. W. Beck, A. H. Claassen, and P. J. Hundt, “Environmental and livelihood impacts of dams: common lessons across development gradients that challenge sustainability”, International Journal of River Basin Management, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 73–92, 2012.
D. de Andrade Cunha and L. V. Ferreira, “Impacts of the Belo Monte hydroelectric dam construction on pioneer vegetation formations along the Xingu River, Para State, Brazil”, Brazilian Journal of Botany, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 159–167, 2012.
H. Guo, Q. Hu, Q. Zhang, and S. Feng, “Effects of the Three Gorges Dam on Yangtze River flow and river interaction with Poyang Lake, China: 2003–2008”, Journal of Hydrology, vol. 416- 417, pp. 19–27, 2012.
Q. G. Wang, Y. H. Du, Y. Su, and K. Q. Chen, “Environmental impact post-assessment of dam and reservoir projects: a review”, Procedia Environmental Sciences, vol. 13, pp. 1439–1443, 2012.
M. Wiatkowski, “Influence of Slup dam reservoir on flow and quality of water in the Nysa Szalona River”, Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 469–478, 2011.
Q. Lin, “Influence of dams on river ecosystem and its countermeasures”, Journal of Water Resource and Protection, vol. 03, no. 01, pp. 60–66, 2011.
Y. Yi, Z. Yang, and S. Zhang, “Ecological influence of dam construction and river-lake connectivity on migration fish habitat in the Yangtze River basin, China”, Procedia Environmental Sciences, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 1942–1954, 2010.
W.Wildi, “Environmental hazards of dams and reservoirs”, Near Curriculum in Natural Environmental Science, vol. 88, pp. 187– 197, 2010.
X. Li, S. Dong, Q. Zhao, and S. Liu, “Impacts of Manwan Dam construction on aquatic habitat and community in Middle Reach of Lancang River”, Procedia Environmental Sciences, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 706–712, 2010.
G. L. Wei, Z. F. Yang, B. S. Cui et al., “Impact of dam construction on water quality and water self-purification capacity of the Lancang River, China”, Water Resources Management, vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 1763–1780, 2009.
Sarawak Energy Berhad, “Hydropower development and community transformation in Sarawak”, In The 13th World Islamic Economic Forum – ‘Disruptive Change: Impact and Challenges’, 2017.
Sarawak Energy, “Annual Report 2018”, Sarawak Energy Berhad, 2018.
B. K. Sovacool and L.C. Bulan, “Behind an ambitious megaproject in Asia: The history and implications of the Bakun hydroelectric dam in Borneo”, Energy Policy, vol.39, no.9, pp. 4842–4859, 2011.
RECODA, “Annual Report 2018”, Regional Corridor Development Authority, 2018.
B. K. Sovacool and L. C. Bulan, “Energy security and hydropower developments in Malaysia: The drivers and challenges facing the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE)”, Renewable Energy, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 113 – 129, 2012.
M. Chow, M. Bakhrojin, H. Haris, and A. Dinesh, “Assessment of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission from hydropower reservoirs in Malaysia”, In Proc. The Economy, Sustainable Development, and Energy International Conference 2018, vol. 2, pp.1380, 2018.
H. Nautiyal and V. Goel, “Sustainability assessment of hydropower projects”, Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 265. pp. 1-14, 2020.
T. Sumi, and T. Hirose, “Accumulation of sediment in reservoirs”, in Water Storage, Transport, and Distribution, Y. Takahasi, pp. 224 – 252, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems Publications, 2009.
S. W. Trimble, B. Wilson, R. Herschy, B. Dargahi, H. Chanson, R. W. Herschy, and V. P. Saltankin, “Reservoir sedimentation” in Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, Springer, Netherlands, pp. 628 – 649, 2012.
O. Chioma, S. Thomas, S.U. Hussein, G. Aboi, O. Oshiga, and A. A. Ahmed, “Hydro Power Generation in Nigeria: Impacts and Mitigation”, In Proc. 15th International Conference on Electronics, Computer and Computation 2019, pp. 1-5, 2019.
D. T. K. Ho, “Hydroelectric dams and power demand in Malaysia: A planning perspective”, Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 252, no.119795, 2019.
G.L. Morris and J. H. Fan, Reservoir Sedimentation Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1998.
S. Pacca, “Impacts from decommissioning of hydroelectric dams: a life cycle perspective”, Climatic Change, vol 84, pp. 281-294, 2007.
T. Y. Ling, C. L. Soo, J. R. Sivalingam, L. Nyanti, S. F. Sim, and J. Grinang, “Assessment of the water and sediment quality of tropical forest streams in upper reaches of the Baleh River, Sarawak, Malaysia, subjected to logging activities”, Journal of Chemistry, vol. 2016, pp. 1 – 13, 2016.
G. Wang, B. Wu, and Z. Wang, “Sedimentation problems and management strategies of Sanmenxia Reservoir, Yellow River, China”, Water Resources Research, vol. 41, no.9, 2005.
M. Wieland, “Life-span of storage dams”, International Water Power Magazine, vol. 62, pp. 32 – 35, 2010.
M. Alamgir, M. J. Campbell, S. Sloan, J. Engert, and W. F. Laurance, “Emerging challenges for sustainable development and forest conservation in Sarawak, Borneo”, PloS ONE, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 1-20, 2020.
D. L. A. Gaveau, D. Sheil, Husnayaen, M. A. Salim, S. Arjasakusuma, M. Ancrenaz, P. Pacheco & E. Meijaard, “Rapid conversions and avoided deforestation: examining four decades of industrial plantation expansion in Borneo”, Scientific Reports, vol 6, no. 1, pp. 1-13, 2016.
Chemsain Konsultant, “Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) Study for The Proposed Baleh – Mapai 500kV Transmission Line Project”, Sarawak Energy, 2020.
H. Kim, “3D Classification of Power Line Scene Using Airborne LIDAR Data”, PhD thesis, York University, Toronto, Ontario, 2015.
M. Mussa, H. Teka, and A. Hussein, “Environmental Impacts of Hydropower and Alternative Mitigation Measures”, Department of Geography and Environmental Science, pp. 184-186, 2018.
R. G. Shirley and J. Word, “Rights, rivers and renewables: Lessons from hydropower conflict in Borneo on the role of cultural politics in energy planning for Small Island Developing States”, Utilities Policy, vol. 55, pp. 189-199, 2018.
W.C. Lee, K. K. Viswanathan, and J. Ali, “Land Compensation Gap for the Resettlement of the Indigenous Communities in Bakun Hydroelectric Dam”, International Journal of Business and Society, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 192-306, 2016.
B. K. Sovacool and L. C. Bulan “They’ll be dammed: the sustainability implications of the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) in Malaysia”, Sustainability Science, vol.8, no.1, pp. 121 – 131, 2012.
T. S. Lian, “An Evaluation of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Mechanism as a tool to protect Native Customary Land Rights in Sarawak”, University of Malaya, pp. 1-30, 2015.
H. Nautiyal and S. K. Singal, Varun, A. Sharma, “Small hydropower for sustainable energy development in India”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 2021-2027, 2011.
K. Kuok, S. Wee, and P. C. Chiu, “Micro hydro potential in Sarawak: the case of Bakelalan”, International Journal on Hydropower and Dams, January 2012, vol 19, no. 2, pp. 80-84, 2012.
S. Murni, J. Whale, T. Urmee, J. K. Davis, D. Harries, “Learning from experience: A survey of existing micro-hydropower projects in Ba’Kelalan, Malaysia”, Renewable Energy, vol. 60, pp. 88-97, 2013.
C. Hauer, B. Wagner, J. Aigner, P. Holzapfel, P. Flodl, M. Liedermann and H. Habersack, “State of the art, shortcomings and future challenges for a sustainable sediment management in hydropower: A review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 98, pp. 40-55, 2018.
A. Alp, A. Akyuz and S. Kucukali, “Ecological impact scorecard of small hydropower plants in operation: An integrated approach”, Renewable Energy, vol. 162, pp. 1605-1617, 2020.
D. Robb, “Hydro’s fish friendly turbines”, Renewable Energy Focus, vol. 2, no. 2, pp.16-17, 2011.
P. March and P. Jacobson, “Industry Experience with Power Generation Options for Environmental Power Flows”, In Proc. HydroVision International 2016, July 2012, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, pp. 1-25.
L. Nathan, U. Grunwald, E. Rosenlieb, H. Mirletz, A. Aznar, R. Spencer, S. Cox, “Hybrid floating solar photovoltaics-hydropower system: Benefits and global assessment of technical potential”, ScienceDirect, vol. 162, pp. 1415-1427, 2020.
J. Nrdensvard, F. Urban, G. Meng, “Social Innovation and Chinese Overseas Hydropower Dams: The Nexus of National Social Policy and Corporate Social Responsibility”, Wiley Online Library, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 245-256.
Sarawak Government, “Laws of Sarawak Chapter 50: Electricity Ordinance Section 16,” 31 May 2007. https://lawnet.sarawak.gov.my/lawnet/Law/TLnetPublishedOrdList.jsp?LTyp=Yr.
M. Fadzilah, N. Johan, G. b. Sat, F. Urban, and G. Siciliano, “The Limits of Social Protection: The Case of Hydropower Dams and Indigenous Peoples’ Land”, Wiley Online Library, vol 4, no. 3, pp 437-450, 2017.
M. Tay, “Development and Environmental Injustice in Malaysia: A Story of Indigenous Resistance in Sarawak”, EnviroLab Asia, vol. 1, no. 1, 2017.
J. Rousseau, “The Bakun Project: Review of Socio-Economic Studies and Preliminary Recommendations for the Resettlement of the Kayan and Lahanan of the Upper Balui”, Report Submitted to the State Planning Unit, Jabatan Ketua Menteri, Sarawak, 1994.
Suhakam, “Report on the Murum Hydroelectric Project and Its Impact Towards the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of the Affected Indigenous Peoples in Sarawak”, Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi, Kuala Lumpur, 2009.
L. Abdallah and T. El-Shennawy, “Reducing carbon dioxide emissions from electricity sector using smart electric grid applications”, Journal of Engineering, vol. 3, pp. 1–8, 2013.
C. Y. Keong, “Energy demand, economic growth, and energy efficiency – the Bakun dam-induced sustainable energy policy revisited”, Energy Policy, vol. 33, no.5, pp. 679–689, 2005.